Health is the level of functional and (or) metabolic efficiency of a living
being. In humans, it is the general condition of a person in the mind, body and
spirit, usually meaning to be free from illness, injury or pain (as in “good health”
or “healthy”).The World Health Organization (WHO) defined health in its broader
sense in 1946 as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and
not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." Although this definition has been
subject to controversy, in particular as having a lack of operational value and
the problem created by use of the word "complete", it remains the most enduring.
Classification systems such as the WHO Family of International Classifications,
including the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health
(ICF) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), are commonly used
to define and measure the components of health.
The maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination
of physical, mental, and social well-being, together sometimes referred to as the
“health triangle”. The WHO's 1986 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion furthered
that health is not just a state, but also "a resource for everyday life, not the
objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal
resources, as well as physical capacities."
Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote good health
in humans are delivered by health care providers. Applications with regard to animal
health are covered by the veterinary sciences. The term "healthy" is also widely
used in the context of many types of non-living organizations and their impacts
for the benefit of humans, such as in the sense of healthy communities, healthy
cities or healthy environments. In addition to health care interventions and a person's
surroundings, a number of other factors are known to influence the health status
of individuals, including their background, lifestyle, and economic and social conditions;
these are referred to as "determinants of health".
Determinants of health
Generally, the context in which an individual lives is of great importance on health
status and quality of life. It is increasingly recognized that health is maintained
and improved not only through the advancement and application of health science,
but also through the efforts and intelligent lifestyle choices of the individual
and society. According to the World Health Organization, the main determinants of
health include the social and economic environment, the physical environment, and
the person's individual characteristics and behaviors.
More specifically, key factors that have been found to influence whether people
are healthy or unhealthy include:
• Income and social status
• Social support networks
• Education and literacy
• Employment/working conditions
• Social environments
• Physical environments
• Personal health practices and coping skills
• Healthy child development
• Biology and genetics
• Health care services
• Gender
• Culture
An increasing number of studies and reports from different organizations and contexts
examine the linkages between health and different factors, including lifestyles,
environments, health care organization, and health policy - such as the 1974 Lalonde
report from Canada[11]; the Alameda County Study in California[12]; and the series
of World Health Reports of the World Health Organization, which focuses on global
health issues including access to health care and improving public health outcomes,
especially in developing countries.
The concept of the "health field", as distinct from medical care, emerged from the
Lalonde report from Canada. The report identified three interdependent fields as
key determinants of an individual's health. These are:
• Lifestyle: the aggregation of personal decisions (i.e. over which the individual
has control) that can be said to contribute to, or cause, illness or death;
• Environmental: all matters related to health external to the human body, and over
which the individual has little or no control;
• Biomedical: all aspects of health, physical and mental, developed within the human
body as influenced by genetic make-up.
Focusing more on lifestyle issues and their relationships with functional health,
data from the Alameda County Study suggested that people can improve their health
via exercise, enough sleep, maintaining a healthy body weight, limiting alcohol
use, and avoiding smoking.[12] The ability to adapt and to self manage have been
suggested as core components of human health.
The environment is often cited as an important factor influencing the health status
of individuals. This includes characteristics of the natural environment, the built
environment, and the social environment. Factors such as clean water and air, adequate
housing, and safe communities and roads all have been found to contribute to good
health, especially the health of infants and children.Some studies have shown that
a lack of neighborhood recreational spaces including natural environment leads to
lower levels of personal satisfaction and higher levels of obesity, linked to lower
overall health and well being. This suggests the positive health benefits of natural
space in urban neighborhoods should be taken into account in public policy and land
use.
Genetics, or inherited traits from parents, also play a role in determining the
health status of individuals and populations. This can encompass both the predisposition
to certain diseases and health conditions, as well as the habits and behaviors individuals
develop through the lifestyle of their families - also referred to as the "nature
versus nurture" debate, in other words the role of factors which can or cannot be
controlled. For example, genetics may play a role in the manner in which people
cope with stress, either mental, emotional or physical.
Maintaining health
Achieving and maintaining health is an ongoing process, shaped by both the evolution
of health care knowledge and practices, as well as personal strategies and organized
interventions for staying healthy.
Role of science in health
Health science is the branch of science focused on health. There are two main approaches
to health science: the study and research of the body and health-related issues
to understand how humans (and animals) function; and the application of that knowledge
to improve health and to prevent and cure diseases and other physical and mental
impairments. The science builds on many sub fields, including biology, biochemistry,
physics, epidemiology, pharmacology, medical sociology, and others. Applied health
sciences endeavor to better understand and improve human health through applications
in areas such as health education, biomedical engineering, biotechnology and public
health.
Organized interventions to improve health based on the principles and procedures
developed through the health sciences are delivered among practitioners trained
in medicine, nursing, nutrition, pharmacy, social work, psychology, physical therapy
and other health care professions. Clinical practitioners focus mainly on the health
of individuals, while public health practitioners consider the overall health of
communities and populations. Workplace wellness programs are increasingly adopted
by companies for their value in improving the health and well-being of their employees,
as are school health services to improve the health and well-being of children.
Role of public health
Public health has been described as "the science and art of preventing disease,
prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed
choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals."[17]
It is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population
health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people
or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case
of a pandemic). Public health has many sub-fields, but typically includes the interdisciplinary
categories of epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental health,
community health, behavioral health, and occupational health, are also important
areas of public health.
The focus of public health interventions is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries
and other health conditions through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy
behaviors, communities and environments. Its aim is preventing from happening or
re-occurring health problems by implementing educational programs, developing policies,
administering services, and conducting research.[18] In many cases, treating a disease
or controlling a pathogen can be vital to preventing it in others, such as during
an outbreak. Vaccination programs and distribution of condoms to prevent the spread
of communicable diseases are examples of common preventive public health measures.
Public health also takes several actions to limit the health disparities between
different areas of the country, continent or world. The great issue is addressing
access of individuals and communities to health care, in terms of financial, geographical
or sociocultural constraints in access to and use of services. Applications of the
public health system include areas of maternal and child health, health services
administration, emergency response, and prevention and control of infectious and
chronic diseases.
The great positive impact of public health programs is widely acknowledged. Due
in part to the policies and actions developed through public health, the 20th century
registered a decrease of the mortality rates in infants and children and a continual
increase in life expectancy in most parts of the world. For example, it is estimated
that the life expectancy has increased for Americans by thirty years since 1900,[19]
and worldwide by six years since 1990.
Self care strategies
See also: Chronic care management, Social relation, and Stress management
Personal health depends partially on the active, passive, and assisted cues people
observe and adopt about their own health. These include personal actions for preventing
or minimizing the effects of a disease, usually a chronic condition, through integrative
care. They also include personal hygiene practices to prevent infection and illness,
such as bathing and washing hands with soap; brushing and flossing teeth; storing,
preparing and handling food safely; and many others. The information gleaned from
personal observations of daily living - such as about sleep patterns, exercise behavior,
nutritional intake, and environmental features - may be used to inform personal
decisions and actions (e.g., "I feel tired in the morning so I am going to try sleeping
on a different pillow"), as well as clinical decisions and treatment plans (e.g.,
a patient who notices his or her shoes are tighter than usual may be having exacerbation
of left-sided heart failure, and may require diuretic medication to reduce fluid
overload).
Personal health also depends partially on the social structure of a person's life.
The maintenance of strong social relationships, volunteering, and other social activities
have been linked to positive mental health and even increased longevity. One American
study among seniors over age 70 found that frequent volunteering was associated
with reduced risk of dying compared with older persons who did not volunteer, regardless
of physical health status.[22] Another study from Singapore reported that volunteering
retirees had significantly better cognitive performance scores, fewer depressive
symptoms, and better mental well-being and life satisfaction than non-volunteering
retirees.
Prolonged psychological stress may negatively impact health, and has been cited
as a factor in cognitive impairment with aging, depressive illness, and expression
of disease.[24] Stress management is the application of methods to either reduce
stress or increase tolerance to stress. Relaxation techniques are physical methods
used to relieve stress. Psychological methods include cognitive therapy, meditation,
and positive thinking which work by reducing response to stress. Improving relevant
skills, such as problem solving and time management skills, reduces uncertainty
and builds confidence, which also reduces the reaction to stress-causing situations
where those skills are applicable. complete health information
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Beauty (also called prettiness, loveliness or comeliness) is a characteristic
of a person, animal, place, object, or idea that provides a perceptual experience
of pleasure, meaning, or satisfaction.[citation needed] Beauty is studied as part
of aesthetics, sociology, social psychology, and culture. An "ideal beauty" is an
entity which is admired, or possesses features widely attributed to beauty in a
particular culture, for perfection.
The experience of "beauty" often involves the interpretation of some entity as being
in balance and harmony with nature, which may lead to feelings of attraction and
emotional well-being.[citation needed] Because this is a subjective experience,
it is often said that "beauty is in the eye of the beholder."[1] In its most profound
sense, beauty may engender a salient experience of positive reflection about the
meaning of one's own existence.[citation needed] A subject of beauty is anything
that resonates with personal meaning.
The classical Greek noun for "beauty" was κάλλος, kallos, and the adjective for
"beautiful" was καλός, kalos. The Koine Greek word for beautiful was ὡραῖος, hōraios,[2]
an adjective etymologically coming from the word ὥρα, hōra, meaning "hour." In Koine
Greek, beauty was thus associated with "being of one's hour."
A ripe fruit (of its time) was considered beautiful, whereas a young woman trying
to appear older or an older woman trying to appear younger would not be considered
beautiful. In Attic Greek, hōraios had many meanings, including "youthful" and "ripe
old age."
Historical view of beauty
There is evidence that a preference for beautiful faces emerges early in child development,
and that the standards of attractiveness are similar across different genders and
cultures. Symmetry is also important because it suggests the absence of genetic
or acquired defects.
Although style and fashion vary widely, cross-cultural research has found a variety
of commonalities in people's perception of beauty. The earliest Western theory of
beauty can be found in the works of early Greek philosophers from the pre-Socratic
period, such as Pythagoras. The Pythagorean school saw a strong connection between
mathematics and beauty. In particular, they noted that objects proportioned according
to the golden ratio seemed more attractive[citation needed]. Ancient Greek architecture
is based on this view of symmetry and proportion.
Plato considered beauty to be the Idea (Form) above all other Ideas. Aristotle saw
a relationship between the beautiful (to kalon) and virtue, arguing that "Virtue
aims at the beautiful."
Classical philosophy and sculptures of men and women produced according to these[which?]
philosophers' tenets of ideal human beauty were rediscovered in Renaissance Europe,
leading to a re-adoption of what became known as a "classical ideal". In terms of
female human beauty, a woman whose appearance conforms to these tenets is still
called a "classical beauty" or said to possess a "classical beauty", whilst the
foundations laid by Greek and Roman artists have also supplied the standard for
male beauty in western civilization[citation needed]. During the Gothic era, the
classical aesthetical canon of beauty was rejected as sinful. Only God is beautiful
and perfect, and man is flawed by the original sin and can achieve no beauty in
his life if not through God. Later, the Renaissance and the Humanism rejected this
view, and considered beauty as a product of rational order and harmony of proportions.
Renaissance artists and architect (such as Giorgio Vasari in his "lives of artists")
criticised the Gothic period as irrational and barbarian. This point of view over
Gothic art lasted until Romanticism, in the 19th century.
The Age of Reason saw a rise in an interest in beauty as a philosophical subject.
For example, Scottish philosopher Francis Hutcheson argued that beauty is "unity
in variety and variety in unity". The Romantic poets, too, became highly concerned
with the nature of beauty, with John Keats arguing in "Ode on a Grecian Urn" that
Beauty is truth, truth beauty ,—that is all.
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.
In the Romantic period, Edmund Burke pointed out the differences between beauty
in its classical meaning and Sublime. The concept of the Sublime by Burke and Kant
permitted us to understand that even if Gothic art and architecture are not always
"symmetrical" or adherent to classical standard of beauty as the other style, Gothic
art is by no mean "ugly" or irrational: it's just another aesthetic category, the
Sublime category.
The 20th century saw an increasing rejection of beauty by artists and philosophers
alike, culminating in postmodernism's anti-aesthietics.This is despite beauty being
a central concern of one of postmodernism's main influences, Friedrich Nietzsche,
who argued that the Will to Power was the Will to Beauty.
In the aftermath of postmodernism's rejection of beauty, thinkers, such as Roger
Scruton and Frederick Turner, have returned to beauty as an important value. Elaine
Scarry also argues that beauty is related to justice.
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Rayonnant rose window in Notre Dame de Paris.
This painting of Inés de Zúñiga, Condesa de Monterrey
Chinese Jade ornament with flower design
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Human beauty
The characterization of a person as “beautiful”, whether on an individual basis
or by community consensus, is often based on some combination of inner beauty, which
includes psychological factors such as personality, intelligence, grace, politeness,
charisma, integrity, congruence and elegance, and outer beauty (i.e. physical attractiveness)
which includes physical attributes which are valued on a subjective basis.
Standards of beauty have changed over time, based on changing cultural values. Historically,
paintings show a wide range of different standards for beauty. However, humans who
are relatively young, with smooth skin, well-proportioned bodies, and regular features,
have traditionally been considered the most beautiful throughout history.
A strong indicator of physical beauty is "averageness", or "koinophilia". When images
of human faces are averaged together to form a composite image, they become progressively
closer to the "ideal" image and are perceived as more attractive. This was first
noticed in 1883, when Francis Galton, cousin of Charles Darwin, overlaid photographic
composite images of the faces of vegetarians and criminals to see if there was a
typical facial appearance for each. When doing this, he noticed that the composite
images were more attractive compared to any of the individual images.
Researchers have replicated the result under more controlled conditions and found
that the computer generated, mathematical average of a series of faces is rated
more favorably than individual faces.[15] Evolutionarily, it makes logical sense
that sexual creatures should be attracted to mates who possess predominantly common
or average features.
A feature of beautiful women that has been explored by researchers is a waist–hip
ratio of approximately 0.70. Physiologists have shown that women with hourglass
figures are more fertile than other women due to higher levels of certain female
hormones, a fact that may subconsciously condition males choosing mates.
People are influenced by the images they see in the media to determine what is or
is not beautiful. Some feminists and doctors have suggested that the very thin models
featured in magazines promote eating disorders, and others have argued that the
predominance of white women featured in movies and advertising leads to a Eurocentric
concept of beauty, feelings of inferiority in women of color, and internalized racism.
The black is beautiful cultural movement sought to dispel this notion.Mixed race
children are sometimes said to be more attractive than their parents because their
genetic diversity arguably protects them from the inherited errors of their individual
parents.
The concept of beauty in men is known as 'bishōnen' in Japan. Bishōnen refers to
males with distinctly feminine features, physical characteristics establishing the
standard of beauty in Japan and typically exhibited in their pop culture idols.
A multi-billion-dollar industry of Japanese Aesthetic Salons exists.
Effects on society
Beauty presents a standard of comparison, and it can cause resentment and dissatisfaction
when not achieved. People who do not fit the "beauty ideal" may be ostracized within
their communities. The television sitcom Ugly Betty portrays the life of a girl
faced with hardships due to society's unwelcoming attitudes toward those they deem
unattractive. However, a person may also be targeted for harassment because of their
beauty. In Malèna, a strikingly beautiful Italian woman is forced into poverty by
the women of the community who refuse to give her work for fear that she may "woo"
their husbands. The documentary Beauty in the Eyes of the Beheld explores both the
societal blessings and curses of female beauty through interviews of women considered
beautiful.
Researchers have found that good looking students get higher grades from their teachers
than students with an ordinary appearance.[23] Furthermore, attractive patients
receive more personalized care from their doctors.[citation needed] Studies have
even shown that handsome criminals receive lighter sentences than less attractive
convicts.[citation needed] Studies among teens and young adults, such as those of
psychiatrist and self-help author, Eva Ritvo, show that skin conditions have a profound
effect on social behavior and opportunity.
How much money a person earns may also be influenced by physical beauty. One study
found that people low in physical attractiveness earn 5 to 10 percent less than
ordinary looking people, who in turn earn 3 to 8 percent less than those who are
considered good looking. Discrimination against others based on their appearance
is known as lookism.
St. Augustine said of beauty "Beauty is indeed a good gift of God; but that the
good may not think it a great good, God dispenses it even to the wicked."
Ugliness
Ugliness is a property of a person or thing that is unpleasant to look upon and
results in a highly unfavorable evaluation. To be ugly is to be aesthetically unattractive,
repulsive, or offensive. Like its opposite, beauty, ugliness involves a subjective
judgment and is at least partly in the "eye of the beholder." Thus, the perception
of ugliness can be mistaken or short-sighted, as in the story of The Ugly Duckling
by Hans Christian Andersen.
People who appear ugly to others suffer well-documented discrimination, earning
10 to 15 percent less per year than similar workers, and are less likely to be hired
for almost any job, but lack legal recourse to fight discrimination.
Although ugliness is normally viewed as a visible characteristic, it can also be
an internal attribute. For example, an individual could be outwardly attractive
but inwardly thoughtless and cruel. It is also possible to be in an "ugly mood,"
which is a temporary, internal state of unpleasantness, or may refer to the way
one views themselves at the moment.
For some people, ugliness is a central aspect of their persona. Jean-Paul Sartre
had a lazy eye and a bloated, asymmetrical face, and he attributed many of his philosophical
ideas to his life-long struggle to come to terms with his self-described ugliness.
Socrates also used his ugliness as a philosophical touch point, concluding that
philosophy can save us from our outward ugliness. Famous in his own time for his
perceived ugliness, Abraham Lincoln was described by a contemporary: "to say that
he is ugly is nothing; to add that his figure is grotesque, is to convey no adequate
impression." However, his looks proved to be an asset in his personal and political
relationships, as his law partner William Herndon wrote, "He was not a pretty man
by any means, nor was he an ugly one; he was a homely man, careless of his looks,
plain-looking and plain-acting. He had no pomp, display, or dignity, so-called.
He appeared simple in his carriage and bearing. He was a sad-looking man; his melancholy
dripped from him as he walked. His apparent gloom impressed his friends, and created
sympathy for him - one means of his great success."
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