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 Home > By Career > Science and Engineering > Bio-Technology
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Biotechnology (sometimes shortened to "biotech") is a field of applied biology
that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in engineering, technology,
medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts. Biotechnology also utilizes these
products for manufacturing purpose. Modern use of similar terms includes genetic
engineering as well as cell- and tissue culture technologies. The concept encompasses
a wide range of procedures (and history) for modifying living organisms according
to human purposes — going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants,
and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection
and hybridization. By comparison to biotechnology, bioengineering is generally thought
of as a related field with its emphasis more on higher systems approaches (not necessarily
altering or using biological materials directly) for interfacing with and utilizing
living things. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity defines biotechnology
as:
"Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or
derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use."
In other terms: "Application of scientific and technical advances in life science
to develop commercial products" is biotechnology.
Biotechnology draws on the pure biological sciences (genetics, microbiology, animal
cell culture, molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology, cell biology) and in
many instances is also dependent on knowledge and methods from outside the sphere
of biology (chemical engineering, bioprocess engineering, information technology,
biorobotics). Conversely, modern biological sciences (including even concepts such
as molecular ecology) are intimately entwined and dependent on the methods developed
through biotechnology and what is commonly thought of as the life sciences industry.
History
Biotechnology is not limited to medical/health applications (unlike Biomedical Engineering,
which includes much biotechnology). Although not normally thought of as biotechnology,
agriculture clearly fits the broad definition of "using a biotechnological system
to make products" such that the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest
biotechnological enterprise. Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant
way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution. The processes and methods
of agriculture have been refined by other mechanical and biological sciences since
its inception. Through early biotechnology, farmers were able to select the best
suited crops, having the highest yields, to produce enough food to support a growing
population. Other uses of biotechnology were required as the crops and fields became
increasingly large and difficult to maintain. Specific organisms and organism by-products
were used to fertilize, restore nitrogen, and control pests. Throughout the use
of agriculture, farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through
introducing them to new environments and breeding them with other plants—one of
the first forms of biotechnology. Cultures such as those in Mesopotamia, Egypt,
and India developed the process of brewing beer. It is still done by the same basic
method of using malted grains (containing enzymes) to convert starch from grains
into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process the
carbohydrates in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol. Later
other cultures produced the process of lactic acid fermentation which allowed the
fermentation and preservation of other forms of food. Fermentation was also used
in this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation
was not fully understood until Pasteur's work in 1857, it is still the first use
of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.
For thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to improve production
of crops and livestock to use them for food. In selective breeding, organisms with
desirable characteristics are mated to produce offspring with the same characteristics.
For example, this technique was used with corn to produce the largest and sweetest
crops.
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Insulin crystals.
Gene therapy using an Adenovirus vector.
DNA microarray chip
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In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology
and explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first
used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing
corn starch using Clostridium acetobutylicum, to produce acetone, which the United
Kingdom desperately needed to manufacture explosives during World War I.
Biotechnology has also led to the development of antibiotics. In 1928, Alexander
Fleming discovered the mold Penicillium. His work led to the purification of the
antibiotic by Howard Florey, Ernst Boris Chain and Norman Heatley penicillin. In
1940, penicillin became available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections
in humans.
The field of modern biotechnology is thought to have largely begun on June 16, 1980,
when the United States Supreme Court ruled that a genetically modified microorganism
could be patented in the case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty.[4] Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty,
working for General Electric, had developed a bacterium (derived from the Pseudomonas
genus) capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating
oil spills.
Revenue in the industry is expected to grow by 12.9% in 2008. Another factor influencing
the biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation—and
enforcement—worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical
products to cope with an ageing, and ailing, U.S. population.
Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector,
with the Department of Energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived
fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed the
U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply of corn and soybeans—the main
inputs into biofuels—by developing genetically modified seeds which are resistant
to pests and drought. By boosting farm productivity, biotechnology plays a crucial
role in ensuring that biofuel production targets are met.
Applications
Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health
care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops
and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental
uses.
For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for
the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another
example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching.
Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated
by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons.
A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology;
for example:
• Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems
using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of
biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology,
and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying
informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with
these molecules, on a large scale."[7] Bioinformatics plays a key role in various
areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms
a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.
• Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic
applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.
• Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example
would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another
example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments
in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology
might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial
agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide,
thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides. An example of this
would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately
more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.
• Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing
of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through
genetic manipulation.
• White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology
applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce
a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts
to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White
biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used
to produce industrial goods.[citation needed] The investment and economic output
of all of these types of applied biotechnologies is termed as bioeconomy.
Medicine
In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as
• drug production
• pharmacogenomics
• gene therapy
• genetic testing (or genetic screening): techniques in molecular biology detect
genetic diseases. To test the developing fetus for Down syndrome, Amniocentesis
and chorionic villus sampling can be used.
Pharmacogenomics
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects
his/her body's response to drugs. It is a portmanteau derived from the words "pharmacology"
and "genomics". It is hence the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals
and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce
drugs that are adapted to each person's genetic makeup.
Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits:
1. Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical
companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that
are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise
not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy
cells.
2. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient's
genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and
metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease
the likelihood of overdose.
3. Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential
therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with
numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used
as targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly
shorten the drug discovery process.
4. Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed
by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response
without the attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy
to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at
once.
Pharmaceutical products
Most traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively simple molecules that have
been found primarily through trial and error to treat the symptoms of a disease
or illness.[citation needed] Biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules such
as proteins and these usually target the underlying mechanisms and pathways of a
malady (but not always, as is the case with using insulin to treat type 1 diabetes
mellitus, as that treatment merely addresses the symptoms of the disease, not the
underlying cause which is autoimmunity); it is a relatively young industry. They
can deal with targets in humans that may not be accessible with traditional medicines.
A patient typically is dosed with a small molecule via a tablet while a large molecule
is typically injected.
Small molecules are manufactured by chemistry but larger molecules are created by
living cells such as those found in the human body: for example, bacteria cells,
yeast cells, animal or plant cells.
Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered microorganisms
such as E. coli or yeast for the production of substances like synthetic insulin
or antibiotics. It can also refer to transgenic animals or transgenic plants, such
as Bt corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as Chinese Hamster Ovary cells
(CHO), are also used to manufacture certain pharmaceuticals. Another promising new
biotechnology application is the development of plant-made pharmaceuticals.
Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical
therapies to treat hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cancers, arthritis, haemophilia, bone
fractures, multiple sclerosis, and cardiovascular disorders. The biotechnology industry
has also been instrumental in developing molecular diagnostic devices that can be
used to define the target patient population for a given biopharmaceutical. Herceptin,
for example, was the first drug approved for use with a matching diagnostic test
and is used to treat breast cancer in women whose cancer cells express the protein
HER2.
Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily
and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to
treat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech developed synthetic
humanized insulin by joining its gene with a plasmid vector inserted into the bacterium
Escherichia coli. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously
extracted from the pancreas of abattoir animals (cattle and/or pigs). The resulting
genetically engineered bacterium enabled the production of vast quantities of synthetic
human insulin at relatively low cost.[9] According to a 2003 study undertaken by
the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) on the access to and availability of
insulin in its member countries, synthetic 'human' insulin is considerably more
expensive in most countries where both synthetic 'human' and animal insulin are
commercially available: e.g. within European countries the average price of synthetic
'human' insulin was twice as high as the price of pork insulin.[10] Yet in its position
statement, the IDF writes that "there is no overwhelming evidence to prefer one
species of insulin over another" and "[modern, highly purified] animal insulins
remain a perfectly acceptable alternative.
Modern biotechnology has evolved, making it possible to produce more easily and
relatively cheaply human growth hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility
drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs.[12] Most drugs today are based on about 500
molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of the genes involved in diseases, disease
pathways, and drug-response sites are expected to lead to the discovery of thousands
more new targets.
Genetic testing
There are two major types of gene tests. In the first type, a researcher may design
short pieces of DNA ("probes") whose sequences are complementary to the mutated
sequences. These probes will seek their complement among the base pairs of an individual's
genome. If the mutated sequence is present in the patient's genome, the probe will
bind to it and flag the mutation. In the second type, a researcher may conduct the
gene test by comparing the sequence of DNA bases in a patient's gene to disease
in healthy individuals or their progeny.
Genetic testing is now used for:
• Carrier screening, or the identification of unaffected individuals who carry one
copy of a gene for a disease that requires two copies for the disease to manifest;
• Confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic individuals;
• Determining sex;
• Forensic/identity testing;
• Newborn screening;
• Prenatal diagnostic screening;
• Presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing adult-onset cancers;
• Presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders.
Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them are used in developed
countries. The tests currently available can detect mutations associated with rare
genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington's disease.
Recently, tests have been developed to detect mutation for a handful of more complex
conditions such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. However, gene tests may not
detect every mutation associated with a particular condition because many are as
yet undiscovered, and the ones they do detect may present different risks to different
people and populations.
Pharmacogenomics
Controversial questions
The absence of privacy and anti-discrimination legal protections in most countries
can lead to discrimination in employment or insurance or other use of personal genetic
information. This raises questions such as whether genetic privacy is different
from medical privacy.
1. Reproductive issues. These include the use of genetic information in reproductive
decision-making and the possibility of genetically altering reproductive cells that
may be passed on to future generations. For example, germline therapy changes the
genetic make-up of an individual's descendants. Thus, any error in technology or
judgment may have far-reaching consequences (though the same can also happen through
natural reproduction). Ethical issues like designed babies and human cloning have
also given rise to controversies between and among scientists and bioethicists,
especially in the light of past abuses with eugenics (see reductio ad hitlerum).
2. Clinical issues. These center on the capabilities and limitations of doctors
and other health-service providers, people identified with genetic conditions, and
the general public in dealing with genetic information.
3. Effects on social institutions. Genetic tests reveal information about individuals
and their families. Thus, test results can affect the dynamics within social institutions,
particularly the family.
4. Conceptual and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility, free
will vis-à-vis genetic determinism, and the concepts of health and disease.
Gene therapy
Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases
like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes
or to bolster a normal function such as immunity. It can be used to target somatic
cells (i.e., those of the body) or gametes (i.e., egg and sperm) cells. In somatic
gene therapy, the genome of the recipient is changed, but this change is not passed
along to the next generation. In contrast, in germline gene therapy, the egg and
sperm cells of the parents are changed for the purpose of passing on the changes
to their offspring.
There are basically two ways of implementing a gene therapy treatment:
1. Ex vivo, which means "outside the body" – Cells from the patient's blood or bone
marrow are removed and grown in the laboratory. They are then exposed to a virus
carrying the desired gene. The virus enters the cells, and the desired gene becomes
part of the DNA of the cells. The cells are allowed to grow in the laboratory before
being returned to the patient by injection into a vein.
2. In vivo, which means "inside the body" – No cells are removed from the patient's
body. Instead, vectors are used to deliver the desired gene to cells in the patient's
body.
As of June 2001, more than 500 clinical gene-therapy trials involving about 3,500
patients have been identified worldwide. Around 78% of these are in the United States,
with Europe having 18%. These trials focus on various types of cancer, although
other multigenic diseases are being studied as well. Recently, two children born
with severe combined immunodeficiency disorder ("SCID") were reported to have been
cured after being given genetically engineered cells.
Gene therapy faces many obstacles before it can become a practical approach for
treating disease.[13] At least four of these obstacles are as follows:
1. Gene delivery tools. Genes are inserted into the body using gene carriers called
vectors. The most common vectors now are viruses, which have evolved a way of encapsulating
and delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic manner. Scientists manipulate
the genome of the virus by removing the disease-causing genes and inserting the
therapeutic genes. However, while viruses are effective, they can introduce problems
like toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting
issues. In addition, in order for gene therapy to provide permanent therapeutic
effects, the introduced gene needs to be integrated within the host cell's genome.
Some viral vectors effect this in a random fashion, which can introduce other problems
such as disruption of an endogenous host gene.
2. High costs. Since gene therapy is relatively new and at an experimental stage,
it is an expensive treatment to undertake. This explains why current studies are
focused on illnesses commonly found in developed countries, where more people can
afford to pay for treatment. It may take decades before developing countries can
take advantage of this technology.
3. Limited knowledge of the functions of genes. Scientists currently know the functions
of only a few genes. Hence, gene therapy can address only some genes that cause
a particular disease. Worse, it is not known exactly whether genes have more than
one function, which creates uncertainty as to whether replacing such genes is indeed
desirable.
4. Multigene disorders and effect of environment. Most genetic disorders involve
more than one gene. Moreover, most diseases involve the interaction of several genes
and the environment. For example, many people with cancer not only inherit the disease
gene for the disorder, but may have also failed to inherit specific tumor suppressor
genes. Diet, exercise, smoking and other environmental factors may have also contributed
to their disease.
Human Genome Project
The Human Genome Project is an initiative of the U.S. Department of Energy ("DOE")
that aims to generate a high-quality reference sequence for the entire human genome
and identify all the human genes.
The DOE and its predecessor agencies were assigned by the U.S. Congress to develop
new energy resources and technologies and to pursue a deeper understanding of potential
health and environmental risks posed by their production and use. In 1986, the DOE
announced its Human Genome Initiative. Shortly thereafter, the DOE and National
Institutes of Health developed a plan for a joint Human Genome Project ("HGP"),
which officially began in 1990.
The HGP was originally planned to last 15 years. However, rapid technological advances
and worldwide participation accelerated the completion date to 2003 (making it a
13 year project). Already it has enabled gene hunters to pinpoint genes associated
with more than 30 disorders.
Cloning
Cloning involves the removal of the nucleus from one cell and its placement in an
unfertilized egg cell whose nucleus has either been deactivated or removed.
There are two types of cloning: 1. Reproductive cloning. After a few divisions,
the egg cell is placed into a uterus where it is allowed to develop into a fetus
that is genetically identical to the donor of the original nucleus.
2. Therapeutic cloning.[15] The egg is placed into a Petri dish where it develops
into embryonic stem cells, which have shown potentials for treating several ailments.
In February 1997, cloning became the focus of media attention when Ian Wilmut and
his colleagues at the Roslin Institute announced the successful cloning of a sheep,
named Dolly, from the mammary glands of an adult female. The cloning of Dolly made
it apparent to many that the techniques used to produce her could someday be used
to clone human beings.[17] This stirred a lot of controversy because of its ethical
implications.
Agriculture
Main article: Genetically modified food Crop yield
Using the techniques of modern biotechnology, one or two genes (Smartstax from Monsanto
in collaboration with Dow AgroSciences will use 8, starting in 2010) may be transferred
to a highly developed crop variety to impart a new character that would increase
its yield.[18] However, while increases in crop yield are the most obvious applications
of modern biotechnology in agriculture, it is also the most difficult one. Current
genetic engineering techniques work best for effects that are controlled by a single
gene. Many of the genetic characteristics associated with yield (e.g., enhanced
growth) are controlled by a large number of genes, each of which has a minimal effect
on the overall yield.[19] There is, therefore, much scientific work to be done in
this area.
Reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses
Crops containing genes that will enable them to withstand biotic and abiotic stresses
may be developed. For example, drought and excessively salty soil are two important
limiting factors in crop productivity. Biotechnologists are studying plants that
can cope with these extreme conditions in the hope of finding the genes that enable
them to do so and eventually transferring these genes to the more desirable crops.
One of the latest developments is the identification of a plant gene, At-DBF2, from
Arabidopsis thaliana, a tiny weed that is often used for plant research because
it is very easy to grow and its genetic code is well mapped out. When this gene
was inserted into tomato and tobacco cells (see RNA interference), the cells were
able to withstand environmental stresses like salt, drought, cold and heat, far
more than ordinary cells. If these preliminary results prove successful in larger
trials, then At-DBF2 genes can help in engineering crops that can better withstand
harsh environments.Researchers have also created transgenic rice plants that are
resistant to rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV). In Africa, this virus destroys majority
of the rice crops and makes the surviving plants more susceptible to fungal infections.
Increased nutritional qualities
Proteins in foods may be modified to increase their nutritional qualities. Proteins
in legumes and cereals may be transformed to provide the amino acids needed by human
beings for a balanced diet.[19] A good example is the work of Professors Ingo Potrykus
and Peter Beyer in creating Golden rice (discussed below).
Improved taste, texture or appearance of food
Modern biotechnology can be used to slow down the process of spoilage so that fruit
can ripen longer on the plant and then be transported to the consumer with a still
reasonable shelf life. This alters the taste, texture and appearance of the fruit.
More importantly, it could expand the market for farmers in developing countries
due to the reduction in spoilage. However, there is sometimes a lack of understanding
by researchers in developed countries about the actual needs of prospective beneficiaries
in developing countries. For example, engineering soybeans to resist spoilage makes
them less suitable for producing tempeh which is a significant source of protein
that depends on fermentation. The use of modified soybeans results in a lumpy texture
that is less palatable and less convenient when cooking.
The first genetically modified food product was a tomato which was transformed to
delay its ripening.[22] Researchers in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines
and Vietnam are currently working on delayed-ripening papaya in collaboration with
the University of Nottingham and Zeneca.[23] Biotechnology in cheese production:[24]
enzymes produced by micro-organisms provide an alternative to animal rennet – a
cheese coagulant – and an alternative supply for cheese makers. This also eliminates
possible public concerns with animal-derived material, although there are currently
no plans to develop synthetic milk, thus making this argument less compelling. Enzymes
offer an animal-friendly alternative to animal rennet. While providing comparable
quality, they are theoretically also less expensive.
About 85 million tons of wheat flour is used every year to bake bread.[25] By adding
an enzyme called maltogenic amylase to the flour, bread stays fresher longer. Assuming
that 10–15% of bread is thrown away as stale, if it could be made to stay fresh
another 5–7 days then perhaps 2 million tons of flour per year would be saved. Other
enzymes can cause bread to expand to make a lighter loaf, or alter the loaf in a
range of ways. Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and
other agrochemicals
Most of the current commercial applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture
are on reducing the dependence of farmers on agrochemicals. For example, Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil bacterium that produces a protein with insecticidal
qualities. Traditionally, a fermentation process has been used to produce an insecticidal
spray from these bacteria. In this form, the Bt toxin occurs as an inactive protoxin,
which requires digestion by an insect to be effective. There are several Bt toxins
and each one is specific to certain target insects. Crop plants have now been engineered
to contain and express the genes for Bt toxin, which they produce in its active
form. When a susceptible insect ingests the transgenic crop cultivar expressing
the Bt protein, it stops feeding and soon thereafter dies as a result of the Bt
toxin binding to its gut wall. Bt corn is now commercially available in a number
of countries to control corn borer (a lepidopteran insect), which is otherwise controlled
by spraying (a more difficult process).
Crops have also been genetically engineered to acquire tolerance to broad-spectrum
herbicide. The lack of herbicides with broad-spectrum activity and no crop injury
was a consistent limitation in crop weed management. Multiple applications of numerous
herbicides were routinely used to control a wide range of weed species detrimental
to agronomic crops. Weed management tended to rely on preemergence—that is, herbicide
applications were sprayed in response to expected weed infestations rather than
in response to actual weeds present. Mechanical cultivation and hand weeding were
often necessary to control weeds not controlled by herbicide applications. The introduction
of herbicide-tolerant crops has the potential of reducing the number of herbicide
active ingredients used for weed management, reducing the number of herbicide applications
made during a season, and increasing yield due to improved weed management and less
crop injury. Transgenic crops that express tolerance to glyphosate, glufosinate
and bromoxynil have been developed. These herbicides can now be sprayed on transgenic
crops without inflicting damage on the crops while killing nearby weeds.
From 1996 to 2001, herbicide tolerance was the most dominant trait introduced to
commercially available transgenic crops, followed by insect resistance. In 2001,
herbicide tolerance deployed in soybean, corn and cotton accounted for 77% of the
626,000 square kilometres planted to transgenic crops; Bt crops accounted for 15%;
and "stacked genes" for herbicide tolerance and insect resistance used in both cotton
and corn accounted for 8%.
Production of novel substances in crop plants
Biotechnology is being applied for novel uses other than food. For example, oilseed
can be modified to produce fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals.
Potatoes, tomatoes, rice tobacco, lettuce, safflowers, and other plants have been
genetically engineered to produce insulin and certain vaccines. If future clinical
trials prove successful, the advantages of edible vaccines would be enormous, especially
for developing countries. The transgenic plants may be grown locally and cheaply.
Homegrown vaccines would also avoid logistical and economic problems posed by having
to transport traditional preparations over long distances and keeping them cold
while in transit. And since they are edible, they will not need syringes, which
are not only an additional expense in the traditional vaccine preparations but also
a source of infections if contaminated.[28] In the case of insulin grown in transgenic
plants, it is well-established that the gastrointestinal system breaks the protein
down therefore this could not currently be administered as an edible protein. However,
it might be produced at significantly lower cost than insulin produced in costly
bioreactors. For example, Calgary, Canada-based SemBioSys Genetics, Inc. reports
that its safflower-produced insulin will reduce unit costs by over 25% or more and
approximates a reduction in the capital costs associated with building a commercial-scale
insulin manufacturing facility of over $100 million, compared to traditional biomanufacturing
facilities.
Animal Biotechnology
In animals, biotechnology techniques are being used to improve genetics and for
pharmaceutical or industrial applications. Molecular biology techniques can help
drive breeding programs by directing selection of superior animals. Animal cloning,
through somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), allows for genetic replication of
selected animals. Genetic engineering, using recombinant DNA, alters the genetic
makeup of the animal for selected purposes, including producing therapeutic proteins
in cows and goats.[30] There is a genetically altered salmon with an increased growth
rate being considered for FDA approval.
Criticism
There is another side to the agricultural biotechnology issue. It includes increased
herbicide usage and resultant herbicide resistance, "super weeds," residues on and
in food crops, genetic contamination of non-GM crops which hurt organic and conventional
farmers, etc.
Biological engineering
Biotechnological engineering or biological engineering is a branch of engineering
that focuses on biotechnologies and biological science. It includes different disciplines
such as biochemical engineering, biomedical engineering, bio-process engineering,
biosystem engineering and so on. Because of the novelty of the field, the definition
of a bioengineer is still undefined. However, in general it is an integrated approach
of fundamental biological sciences and traditional engineering principles.
Biotechnologists are often employed to scale up bio processes from the laboratory
scale to the manufacturing scale. Moreover, as with most engineers, they often deal
with management, economic and legal issues. Since patents and regulation (e.g.,
U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulation in the U.S.) are very important issues
for biotech enterprises, bioengineers are often required to have knowledge related
to these issues.
The increasing number of biotech enterprises is likely to create a need for bioengineers
in the years to come. Many universities throughout the world are now providing programs
in bioengineering and biotechnology (as independent programs or specialty programs
within more established engineering fields).
Bioremediation and biodegradation
Biotechnology is being used to engineer and adapt organisms especially microorganisms
in an effort to find sustainable ways to clean up contaminated environments. The
elimination of a wide range of pollutants and wastes from the environment is an
absolute requirement to promote a sustainable development of our society with low
environmental impact. Biological processes play a major role in the removal of contaminants
and biotechnology is taking advantage of the astonishing catabolic versatility of
microorganisms to degrade/convert such compounds. New methodological breakthroughs
in sequencing, genomics, proteomics, bioinformatics and imaging are producing vast
amounts of information. In the field of Environmental Microbiology, genome-based
global studies open a new era providing unprecedented in silico views of metabolic
and regulatory networks, as well as clues to the evolution of degradation pathways
and to the molecular adaptation strategies to changing environmental conditions.
Functional genomic and metagenomic approaches are increasing our understanding of
the relative importance of different pathways and regulatory networks to carbon
flux in particular environments and for particular compounds and they will certainly
accelerate the development of bioremediation technologies and biotransformation
processes.
Marine environments are especially vulnerable since oil spills of coastal regions
and the open sea are poorly containable and mitigation is difficult. In addition
to pollution through human activities, millions of tons of petroleum enter the marine
environment every year from natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable
fraction of petroleum oil entering marine systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading
activities of microbial communities, in particular by a remarkable recently discovered
group of specialists, the so-called hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCCB).
Biotechnology regulations
The National Institute of Health was the first federal agency to assume regulatory
responsibility in the United States. The Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee of the
NIH published guidelines for working with recombinant DNA and recombinant organisms
in the laboratory. Nowadays, the agencies that are responsible for the biotechnology
regulation are: US Department of Agriculture (USDA) that regulates plant pests and
medical preparation from living organisms, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
that regulates pesticides and herbicides, and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
which ensures that the food and drug products are safe and effective
Education
In 1988, after prompting from the United States Congress, the National Institute
of General Medical Sciences (National Institutes of Health) instituted a funding
mechanism for biotechnology training. Universities nationwide compete for these
funds to establish Biotechnology Training Programs (BTPs). Each successful application
is generally funded for five years then must be competitively renewed. Graduate
students in turn compete for acceptance into a BTP; if accepted then stipend, tuition
and health insurance support is provided for two or three years during the course
of their PhD thesis work. Nineteen institutions offer NIGMS supported BTPs.[36]
Biotechnology training is also offered at the undergraduate level and in community
colleges.
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