Architecture (Latin architectura, from the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων – arkhitekton,
from ἀρχι- "chief" and τέκτων "builder, carpenter, mason") is both the process and
product of planning, designing and construction. Architectural works, in the material
form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural and political symbols and as
works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving
architectural achievements.
"Architecture" can mean:
• The art and science of design and erecting buildings and other physical structures.
• A general term to describe buildings and other infrastructures.
• A style and method of design and construction of buildings and other physical
structures.
• The practice of an architect, where architecture means to offer or render professional
services in connection with the design and construction of a building, or group
of buildings and the space within the site surrounding the buildings, that have
as their principal purpose human occupancy or use.
• Design activity, from the macro-level (urban design, landscape architecture) to
the micro-level (construction details and furniture).
• The term "architecture" has been adopted to describe the activity of designing
any kind of system, and is commonly used in describing information technology.
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Brunelleschi, in the building of the dome of Florence Cathedral
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In relation to buildings, architecture has to do with the planning, designing and
constructing form, space and ambience that reflect functional, technical, social,
environmental, and aesthetic considerations. It requires the creative manipulation
and coordination of material, technology, light and shadow. Architecture also encompasses
the pragmatic aspects of realizing buildings and structures, including scheduling,
cost estimating and construction administration. As documentation produced by architects,
typically drawings, plans and technical specifications, architecture defines the
structure and/or behavior of a building or any other kind of system that is to be
or has been constructed.
Theory of architecture
Historic treatises
The earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is De architectura,
by the Roman architect Vitruvius in the early 1st century CE.According to Vitruvius,
a good building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas,
which translate roughly as –
• Durability – it should stand up robustly and remain in good condition.
• Utility – it should be useful and function well for the people using it
• Beauty – it should delight people and raise their spirits.
According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three
attributes as well as possible. Leone Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas
of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter
of proportion, although ornament also played a part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion
were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important
aspect of beauty was therefore an inherent part of an object, rather than something
applied superficially; and was based on universal, recognisable truths. The notion
of style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing
of Vasari. The treatises, by the 18th century, had been translated into Italian,
French, Spanish and English.
In the early nineteenth century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts
(1836) that, as the titled suggested, contrasted the modern, industrial world, which
he disparaged, with an idealized image of neo-medieval world. Gothic architecture,
Pugin believed, was the only “true Christian form of architecture.”
The 19th century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture,
published 1849, was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture.
Architecture was the "art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men
... that the sight of them" contributes "to his mental health, power, and pleasure".
For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance. His work goes on to state
that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way "adorned".
For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string
courses or rustication, at the very least.
On the difference between the ideals of "architecture" and mere "construction",
the renowned 20th C. architect Le Corbusier wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and
concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction.
Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy
and I say: This is beautiful. That is Architecture".
By contrast, the le Corbusier's contemporary, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said that
architecture begins "when 2 bricks are put together."
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Modern concepts of architecture
The great 19th century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding
precept to architectural design: "Form follows function".
While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely
subject to functionality was met with both popularity and skepticism, it had the
effect of introducing the concept of "function" in place of Vitruvius' "utility".
"Function" came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and
enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and
cultural.
Nunzia Rondanini stated, "Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond
the functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through
its own particular way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence
social life without presuming that, in and of itself, it will promote social development.'
To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to art for art's sake is not
only reactionary; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality
which degrades form into a mere instrumentality".
Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach
to building design are rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism,
and phenomenology.
In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass
of both structure and function, the consideration of sustainability. To satisfy
the contemporary ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally
friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural
and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon
non-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water and waste management and
lighting.
History
Origins and vernacular architecture
Building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship,
etc.) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures
developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices,
building became a craft, and "architecture" is the name given to the most highly
formalized and respected versions of that craft.
It is widely assumed that architectural success was the product of a process of
trial and error, with progressively less trial and more replication as the results
of the process proved increasingly satisfactory. What is termed vernacular architecture
continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings
make up most of the built world that people experience every day. Early human settlements
were mostly rural. Due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting
in urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew and evolved very rapidly in
some cases, such as that of Çatal Höyük in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro of the Indus
Valley Civilization in modern-day Pakistan.
Ancient architecture
In many ancient civilizations, such as that of Egypt and Mesopotamia, architecture
and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural,
and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to represent
symbolically the political power of the ruler, the ruling elite, or the state itself.
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St Mary's Cathedral, Killarney, designed
by A.W.N. Pugin
The National Congress of Brazil,
designed by Oscar Niemeyer.
Postmodern design at Gare do Oriente, Lisbon,
Portugal, by Santiago Calatrava.
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The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and
the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and
new building types emerged. Architectural styles developed.
Texts on architecture have been written since ancient time. These texts provided
both general advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of
canons are found in the writings of the 1st-century BCE Roman military engineer
Vitruvius, the Kao Gong Ji of ancient China[Notes 1] and Vaastu Shastra of ancient
India and Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra of Sri Lanka. Some of the most important
early examples of canonic architecture are religious.
Asian architecture
The architecture of different parts of Asia developed along different lines from
that of Europe; Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics.
Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity. In many Asian
countries a pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically
to enhance the natural landscape.
Islamic architecture
Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, incorporating a blend of architectural
forms from the ancient Middle East and Byzantium, but also developing features to
suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout
the Middle East, North Africa, Spain and the Indian Sub-continent. The widespread
application of the pointed arch was to influence European architecture of the Medieval
period.
The medieval builder
In Europe, in both the Classical and Medieval periods, buildings were not often
attributed to specific individuals and the names of architects remain frequently
unknown, despite the vast scale of the many religious buildings extant from this
period.
During the Medieval period guilds were formed by craftsmen to organize their trade
and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical
buildings. The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister
lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.
Renaissance and the architect
With the Renaissance and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than
religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began.
Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo,
Palladio – and the cult of the individual had begun.
There was still no dividing line between artist, architect and engineer, or any
of the related vocations, and the appellation was often one of regional preference.
At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level
of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.
Early modern and the industrial age
With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and
technology, architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began
to concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, often at the expense of technical
aspects of building design. There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect"
who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual
qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country
houses of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or Scottish Baronial
styles. Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example at Ecole
des Beaux Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings
and little to context and feasibility. Effective architects generally received their
training in the offices of other architects, graduating to the role from draughtsmen
or clerks.
Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and
consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products,
once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine
production.
Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. House builders could use
current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern
books and architectural journals.
Modernism and reaction of architecture
The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the twentieth century
gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to Modern Architecture.
Many architects felt that buildings had become overly decorated and burdened with
various styles that they could no longer be honest to the function. They felt that
architecture should not be an accumulation of past traditions but that it should
be adapted toward the common man. The Modernists wanted buildings that were beautiful
not in overwhelming decoration but beautiful in simplicity Notable among these is
the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects.
The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here. Following
this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Weimar, Germany in 1919, redefined the
architectural bounds prior set throughout history, viewing the creation of a building
as the ultimate synthesis—the apex—of art, craft, and technology. The Bauhaus is
credited as one of the birthplaces of the modernist movement. Many notable artists,
designers, and architects taught at the Bauhaus such as Mies van der Rohe, Marcel
Breuer, and Walter Gropius. After the outbreak of World War II, the Bauhaus was
closed by the Nazis. As a result, many of the teachers and students fled to other
countries and spread their ideas.
When Modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with
moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I,
pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate
for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the
middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic
refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic
order. The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure
forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details.
Buildings displayed their functional and structural elements, exposing steel beams
and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind decorative forms.
Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright developed Organic architecture in which the
form was defined by its environment and purpose, with an aim to promote harmony
between human habitation and the natural world with prime examples being Robie House
and Falling Water.
Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to
create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction
techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating
the new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution, including
steel-frame construction, which gave birth to high-rise superstructures. By mid-century,
Modernism had morphed into the International Style, an aesthetic epitomized in many
ways by the Twin Towers of New York's World Trade Center.
Many architects resisted Modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness
of ornamented styles and as the founders of that movement lost influence in the
late 1970s, Postmodernism developed as a reaction against its austerity. Postmodernism
viewed Modernism as being too extreme and even harsh in regards to design. Instead,
Postmodernists combined Modernism with older styles from before the 1900's to form
a middle ground. Robert Venturi's contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary
building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was
better than a "duck" (an ungainly building in which the whole form and its function
are tied together) gives an idea of these approaches.
Architecture today
Part of the architectural profession, and also some non-architects, responded to
Modernism and Postmodernism by going to what they considered the root of the problem.
They felt that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit
by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology
to give a livable environment.
The Design Methodology Movement involving people such as Christopher Alexander started
searching for more people-oriented designs. Extensive studies on areas such as behavioral,
environmental, and social sciences were done and started informing the design process.
As the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems,
services, energy and technologies), architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary.
Architecture today usually requires a team of specialist professionals, with the
architect being one of many, although usually the team leader.
Starting in the 1980s and into the new millennium, the field of architecture saw
the rise of specializations for each project type, technological expertise or project
delivery methods. In addition, there has been an increased separation of the 'design'
architect [Notes 2] from the 'project' architect.[Notes 3] The main reason for the
shift is because architecture has become much more complicated. Architecture has
become more than just building but has morphed into an extensive process involving
durability, quality, money, and compliance to local laws. Every detail must be taken
into account by the architecture firm. A great structure can no longer be the design
of one person but must be the work of many.
Moving the issue of environmental sustainability into the mainstream is a significant
development in the architecture profession. Within the past several decades, architects
have realized that buildings must take into account their effect upon the environment.
Major examples of this can be found in greener roof designs, biodegradable materials,and
more attention to a structure's energy usage. This major shift in architecture has
also changed architecture schools to focus more the environment. Sustainability
in architecture was pioneered in the 1960s by architects such as Buckminster Fuller,
Frank Lloyd Wright, Sim Van der Ryn, in the 1970s Ian McHarg in the US and Brenda
and Robert Vale in the UK and New Zealand. There has been an acceleration in the
number of buildings which seek to meet green building sustainable design principles.
Sustainable practices that were at the core of vernacular architecture increasingly
provide inspiration for environmentally and socially sustainable contemporary techniques.[10]
The U.S. Green Building Council's LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)
rating system has been instrumental in this.[11] An example of an architecturally
innovative green building is the Dynamic Tower which will be powered by wind turbines
and solar panels.
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